ADHD Research Paper Your Name Class Your Instructors Date. ADHD Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) seems to have drawn a weakness of this generation of children in the United States, a nd apparently itis becoming more commonly every year. However, a diagnosis measures for ADHD is so subjective, as to what qualifies, and who qualifies? Essay Instructions: 12 page, APA formatted, research paper on attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Discuss brain dysfunction in ADHD sufferers. Discuss medications for ADHD and how they operate on a neuro physiological level. Include medications Strattera, Ritalin, Dexadrine, Concerta, Adderall Sep 30, · Abstract. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a complex disorder, which can be seen as a disorder of life time, developing in preschool years and manifesting symptoms (full and/or partial) throughout the adulthood; therefore, it is not surprising that there are no simple blogger.com by: 92
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Try out PMC Labs and tell us what you think. Learn More, adhd research paper apa. Adhd research paper apa aim of this paper is to provide a short and concise review which can be used to inform affected children and adults; family members of affected children and adults, adhd research paper apa, and other medical, paramedical, non-medical, and educational professionals about the disorder, adhd research paper apa. This paper has also tried to look into the process of how ADHD develops; what are the associated problems; and how many other children and adults are affected by such problems all over the world basically to understand ADHD more precisely in order to develop a better medical and or non-medical multimodal intervention plan.
If preschool teachers and clinicians are aware of what the research tells us about ADHD, the varying theories of its cause, and which areas need further research, the knowledge will assist them in supporting the families of children with ADHD.
By including information in this review about the connection between biological behavior, it is hoped that preschool teachers and clinicians at all levels will feel more confident about explaining to parents of ADHD children, and older ADHD children themselves about the probable causes of ADHD.
Despite this long research history, ADHD is not necessarily well understood among the lay public, given the many controversies and public misconceptions concerning the disorder. ADHD is recognized as a common childhood psychiatric disorder and has a strong genetic, neuro-biologic, and neurochemical basis. Classification of what constitutes ADHD has changed dramatically over the last 32 years, with each successive revision of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual, the diagnostic criteria used to describe the disorder.
home and school and clear evidence of significant impairment in social, adhd research paper apa, school or work functioning. The DSM also allows the classification of two sub-type disorders: i predominantly inattentive where the child only meets criteria for inattention; and ii predominantly hyperactive-impulsive where only the hyperactive-impulsive criteria are met.
Other studies have found similar prevalence rates in elementary school-age children Underlying etiological explanations of ADHD can be simply divided into biological and environmental. In simple terms biological explanations include genetics, brain structure and their influence on neuropsychology, while predominant environmental explanations include problems during and after birth, exposure to environmental toxins, parenting and diet.
Heredity of ADHD adhd research paper apa been an important issue. The heredity basis for psychiatric disorders was already recognized at the turn of the nineteenth century by Enail Kraepelin. Several reasons exist for this particular focus, dopaminergic drugs methylphenidate are clinically efficacious in addressing the core problems associated with ADHD.
A gene related to dopamine, the DRD4 repeater genehas been the most reliably found in samples of children with ADHD. Monitoring the correspondence between the intended and actually executed action, adhd research paper apa, a fundamental mechanism adhd research paper apa behavioral regulation, is reflected by error-related negativity ERNan ERP component generated by the anterior cingulate cortex.
Based on this process assumption, adhd research paper apa, a study by LaHoste et al. A flanker task was administered to adolescent twins age 12 including 99 monozygotic MZ and dizygotic DZ pairs. This study provides the first evidence for heritable individual differences in the neural substrates of action monitoring and suggests that ERN, CRN, and P e can potentially serve as endophenotypes for genetic studies of personality traits and psychopathology associated with abnormal regulation of behavior.
The sequencing of adhd research paper apa human genome and the identification of a vast array of DNA polymorphisms has afforded cognitive scientists with the opportunity to interrogate the genetic basis of cognition with renewed vigor. Advances in the understanding of the neural substrates of sustained and spatial attention arising from the cognitive neurosciences can help guide putative linkages in cognitive genetics.
Accordingly, individual differences in spatial attention have been associated with variation in an alpha-4 cholinergic receptor gene CHRNA4. APOE-4 allele dosage has been shown to influence the speed of attentional reorienting in independent samples of nonaffected individuals. Preliminary evidence in both healthy children and children with ADHD suggests association with variants of the DAT1 gene and the control of spatial attention across the hemifields.
Imaging studies using positron emission tomography PETand magnetic resonance imaging MRI techniques have implicated the fronto-striatal circuitry in ADHD, an area rich in dopaminergic activity. However certain meta-analytic studies have questioned the robust association between dopaminergic genes and ADHD. As well as gene-gene interactions, the extent to which having a cocktail of different genetic influences might elevate risk for ADHD.
A wealth of literature has examined the anatomical structure of the brain in children with ADHD. Using brain scanning technology such as MRI these studies suggest that the brain circuits linking the prefrontal cortex, striatum and cerebellum are not functioning normally in children with ADHD. These results suggest that compromised brain morphology of selected regions is related to behavioral measures of inhibition and attention.
Studies using PET to assess cerebral glucose metabolism have found diminished metabolism in adults with ADHD, particularly in the frontal region. Another study pointed that children with ADHD were found to have a smaller corpus callosum, adhd research paper apa, particularly in the area of the genu and splenium and that region just anterior to the splenium.
This would be consistent with views that the cerebellum plays a major role in executive functioning and the motor presetting aspects of sensory perception that derive from planning and other executive actions.
Neurobiology of ADHD has been another valued topic of investigation. The bottom-up theories propose disturbances in subcortical adhd research paper apa, such as the thalamus, and hypothalamus and reticular activating systems are responsible for ADHD symptomology.
The top-down theories attribute the dysfunction to frontal and prefrontal and adhd research paper apa cortices. Smaller frontal lobe or right prefrontal cortex was found for the ADHD groups in all studies that examined this measure. Five of six studies found a smaller anterior or posterior corpus callosum. Four of six found loss of the normal caudate asymmetry, and these four also found a smaller left or right globus pallidus.
The role of the basal ganglia in ADHD has been given serious importance in neuropsychological research. The basal ganglia are a collection of large subcortical structures that can be divided into two sets of core structures: i the striatum consisting of the caudate, putamen, and ventral striatum and ii the pallidum or globus pallidus consisting of the external segment, internal segment, and ventral pallidum.
The striatum receives input from the entire cerebral cortex, thalamus, adhd research paper apa, substantia nigra, and amygdala and sends projections to the pallidum and substantia nigra.
The pallidum sends input to the thalamic nuclei and additional subcortical nuclei, where information will be sent back to the frontal or pre-frontal cortex. The primary neurotransmitter involved in modulation of the basal ganglia is dopamine, and disruption of this system has been found in ADHD.
Initial studies found higher levels of the dopamine metabolite, and homovanillic acid in cerebral spinal fluid were positively correlated with the amount of hyperactivity in boys. A study using single PET-CT found that adults with ADHD had increased levels of striatal DAT compared to normal controls, which may lead to decreased availability of striatal dopamine in ADHD.
Research on the role of the basal ganglia in Adhd research paper apa has primarily focused on the caudate. These children were also more likely to show a reversed caudate asymmetry when compared to healthy adhd research paper apa, with the left being smaller than right.
Moreover, a significant relationship between the reduction in left caudate volume and performance on behavioral inhibition tasks was found, adhd research paper apa. This evidence suggests that asymmetry of the caudate regardless of volume has important implications in attention and behavioral control.
Finally, functional imaging studies have found decreases in blood flow to the caudate in ADHD. The role of the putamen has also been studied as an etiological factor for the ADHD.
However, two studies adhd research paper apa that the putamen may actually be important in the expression of ADHD symptomology. Researchers found that the ADHD diagnosis was significantly associated with the titer of two ant streptococcal antibodies.
In addition, they found that higher antibodies titers were associated with larger volumes in the left putamen and right globus pallidus in children with ADHD. Recent advances in functional Adhd research paper apa technology have provided new methods to investigate blood flow to various regions of the brain. Functional MRI relaxometry allows researchers to investigate the resting or steady state conditions and medication-related changes and were able to indirectly assess blood volume to the striatum caudate and putamen.
In addition, adhd research paper apa, they found that blood flow to the left was more decreased than blood flow to the right side. They found no differences in blood flow to the thalamus and caudate, although there was a non-significant trend in the right caudate.
There were no significant differences in blood flow to the caudate off or on medication. Filipek et al. They propose that ADHD symptoms are closely related to functional abnormalities in the putamen, which is closely involved in the control of motor behavior.
These hypotheses lay the foundation for our study of the neuroanatomy of the putamen in children with ADHD. Investigators in their study using magnetic resonance imaging scans adhd research paper apa boys in residential treatment with symptoms of ADHDand psychopathic traits found no differences in the total, left and right putamen volumes across the ADHD or control group. A significant reversal of asymmetry across groups was found; children with ADHD more frequently had a smaller left putamen than right.
In contrast, adhd research paper apa, the control group more frequently has a smaller right than left putamen, adhd research paper apa. Several studies have examined cerebral blood flow using single-photon emission computed tomography SPECT in children with ADHD and normal children, adhd research paper apa. Studies examining the neuropsychology of ADHD provide an opportunity to understand the relationship between underlying biological processes and symptoms of ADHD.
For many years it was accepted that symptoms of ADHD were the result of cognitive dysregulation. A summary of ADHD as a disorder of cognitive dysregulation suggested that the relationship between biology and behavior in children with ADHD was mediated by inhibitory dysfunction. This viewed ADHD as a functional response by the child, aimed at avoiding delay. This alternative viewpoint of ADHD was based on other studies, adhd research paper apa, 92 which showed that most of the neuropsychological evidence to support ADHD as a result of cognitive dysregulation was confounded by delay.
To demonstrate this, researchers got children with ADHD and match control children to participate in the matching familiar figures test, and found the same results as previous studies. However, researchers pointed out that all these studies involved trial constraints where as soon as one trial ended the next began and were confounded with delay.
When researchers re-ran their study under time constraint for a fixed period of time where early or impulsive responses had no influence on delaychildren with ADHD performed no differently from controls. When the child is in control of their environment they can choose to minimize delay by acting impulsively, e. by skipping the queue at the end of the slide! When the child is not in control of their environment, adhd research paper apa, or at least where they are expected to behave in certain ways or face sanctions, the child would choose to distract themselves from the passing of time.
For example, in a classroom context during literacy lessons the child could achieve this either by daydreaming inattention or by fidgeting hyperactivity.
A summary of ADHD as a motivational style suggests that the relationship between biology and behavior in ADHD is mediated by delay aversion. Traditionally these two different accounts of ADHD have both sought to independently explain the disorder. However, adhd research paper apa, a study by Sonuga-Barke et al. Results of this study showed that measures used to test each hypothesis were uncorrelated, demonstrating that they measured different constructs.
Both sets of measures were correlated with ADHD, and when combined were highly diagnostic, correctly distinguishing These results suggested that both accounts appeared to help to explain ADHD, but that neither explanation was the single theory of ADHD which both theoretical camps had been searching for.
Based on these findings, researchers proposed his adhd research paper apa pathway model of ADHD. The first one is through cognitive dysregulation and another via motivational style. Clinically the dual pathway model suggests that there may be merit in targeting different sub-types with specific treatments, as well as allowing the development of novel interventions, perhaps aimed at desensitizing delay, adhd research paper apa.
Some have suggested ways in which the greater understanding about the influence of delay aversion on the development of ADHD could be used to develop alternative interventions. Some studies have not found a greater incidence of prenatal pregnancy or birth complications in children with ADHD compared to normal children whereas others have found a slightly higher prevalence of unusually short or long labor, fetal distress, low forceps delivery, and toxemia or adhd research paper apa in children with ADHD.
Researchers found that smoking and maternal stress during the pregnancy is associated with onset of ADHD during early childhood. Similarly observed that parental smoking during pregnancy predicts non-responsiveness to intervention targeting ADHD symptoms in elementary school children.
Hartsough et al. Exposure to environmental toxins specifically lead has also been reviewed as a causal factor for ADHD. An amazing variety of toxins extent in the modern environment have deleterious effects on the central nervous system that range from severe organic destruction to subtle brain dysfunction.
And most children with ADHD likewise, adhd research paper apa, do not have significantly elevated lead burdens.
How to format your paper in APA style in 2020
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Apa Formal Research Paper. Running head: APA Formal Research Paper Include a running header (a short title of your paper) only on the title page Type as: Running head: TITLE IN ALL CAPS All additional pages should just have the short title without the phrase Running head Center the title The long title of your paper should include the main idea and scope of your paper The title should be typed in 12 point ADHD Research Paper Your Name Class Your Instructors Date. ADHD Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) seems to have drawn a weakness of this generation of children in the United States, a nd apparently itis becoming more commonly every year. However, a diagnosis measures for ADHD is so subjective, as to what qualifies, and who qualifies? American Psychological Association (APA) (Name of Style Manual Used in this Study) Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is a prevalent emotional and behavioral disorder that can affect the scholastic and social functioning of school-age children. ADHD is characterized by developmentally inappropriate inattention
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